Information and telecommunications technologies can offset disadvantages of lower population density and geographic isolation, making available critical information and resources concentrated in larger cities, or seats of government. However, IT caters to more sophisticated, savvy computer users and instead of leveling access and literacy may widen the gap that favors the educated, wealthy, young and city-dwelling (e.g., Schirmer and Goetz, 1997). A key lesson for rural residents, Extension personnel and researchers is that tapping technology's potential is more than a technical or a supply problem, reinforcing a multi-dimensional conception of the digital divide. The accelerating pace of technological change at the same time raises the urgency of responding to the challenge of using IT for strategic advantage. For rural communities, new tools are needed to address contemporary social, economic and environmental changes. For individuals, technology literacy has become a fundamental workforce skill, enhancing workers' value and transforming their roles as IT consumers and producers.

Technology transfer may be necessary, but is certainly not sufficient, to realize IT's potential. Grassroots planning, training and community participation are critical for helping people not only access or use IT, but for using it to build community capital and improve the quality of their lives. The following quote illustrates the paradigm shift that using IT successfully may require (Pardo, 2000):

Yes, yes, my daughter can build a Web site, too, but digital government is more than that. The more of us who understand that digital government isn't about building a Web site, that it's not about technologies, that it is about transforming government service delivery through the use of technology, the better off we'll all be.

Economic forces favor communities that can identify and marshal IT resources to take advantage of emerging opportunities. Rural communities that develop plans to help their citizens, organizations and institutions use these tools can better position themselves in a global economy, and pursue quality of life issues while preserving local culture and values (Allen and Dillman, 1994; U.S. Department of Commerce, 2000b). The value of IT investment can also be measured in terms of changes (presumably increases) in community involvement or engagement.

Community information networks (CIN) provide a medium for people to communicate about local issues, to work together toward shared goals, to exchange information and resources, and to create a local knowledge base. CINs can add value to problem-solving approaches and existing community-building and development processes. They potentially save time and travel, provide a gateway to services and information never before available, and stimulate local flows of information and dialogue. Figure 1 identifies the elements of a CIN.

Figure 1. Elements of a CIN (Shuffstall, 2000a)

A CIN publishes information about or of benefit to the community, and provides electronic means for members to communicate (Beamish, 1995). Synonyms include civic networks, Free-Nets, community computer systems, telecommunities, and public access networks. CINs are generally Web-based, and restricted to communities of place (versus online, virtual or interest- based communities). The 'network' concept implies [electronic] communication among members - an important distinction between Web sites and CINs (Law and Keltner, 1995). The latter generally operate on low budgets and depend on external funding sources and local volunteers (Beamish, 1995). The CIN can be a blueprint for incorporating telecommunication and IT into community-building and development activities (McMahon and Salant, 1999). A well-designed CIN connects people with public, private and non-profit organizations to address issues of local importance. Moreover, a CIN can create important opportunities in both the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors of rural economies.

Not all CINs, nor efforts to popularize them, have thrived. The federal government has funded numerous 'telehealth' networks to expand access to health care in underserved areas, for example. While data on network attrition are limited, use of these networks has not come close to matching the level of investment in the sector (Grigsby and Brown, 2000). Technology and access do not ensure use, and use does not guarantee long-term sustainability. Schuler (1996a), a co-founder of the Seattle Community Network and a pioneer within the CIN community, cites three scenarios that doom CIN efforts:

Table 1 lists services commonly provided by CINs. Typical goals of CINs include strengthening community, increasing IT literacy, improving democracy, producing better-informed citizens, supporting economic growth, education and social services (Beamish, 1995; Schuler, 1997).

Building community, strengthening social capital and local capacity, and promoting economic development cut across sectors of the rural community. Schuler (1996b) contends that effective CINs emphasize community over individual interests, and Stallings (1996) notes that many make this explicit in their by-laws. These goals are admirable, yet require much more than providing access and encouraging use to achieve community development and better quality of life.

Based on the experience in Potter County, PA, four specific steps have been identified in the effective implementation of a CIN. These include: 1) creating a community network taskforce; 2) setting up 'IT camps' for local secondary school students; 3) establishing community technology centers, and; 4) delivering IT curricula to key sectors.

Three major tasks are involved in this activity (#1). The first is to create a Community Network Task Force (CNTF). Logistically, developing the CNTF entails initial small group presentations by project personnel to key leaders in the selected communities (e.g., school superintendent, city council/mayor, business leaders, influential health care providers, church leaders, local residents with IT expertise, representatives of different community groups [e.g., ethnic groups, farming community]). Fundamental to this process is the identification of at least one project champion, who understands the potential benefits of digital technologies for the community and can convey them in non-technical terms. The champion is also an organizer, participant and recruiter.

The CNTF should have from 3 to 9 members, representing as broad a spectrum of the community as possible. Task Force members need access to and rapport with local leaders within the public, private, non-profit (e.g., government, business, churches and non-profits) and volunteer (e.g., social organizations, service clubs) spheres. Members must understand the potential of information technology to impact the long-term well-being of the community. While they do not have to be technology experts, they must be willing to learn and work together to bring the community's leadership and resources to bear on the task of helping move the community into the Information Age.

The CNTF needs to conduct a Technology Infrastructure Assessment, both of information and telecommunications technology resources and needs. What technologies are currently available, who are the service providers, with whom would the community likely work, what questions must be asked, what needs must be addressed to ensure reliable, secure broadband access for the community, and what are the gaps between existing resources and CIN-capable IT resources? This assessment forms the basis for developing the CIN Technical Plan, establishing Community Technology Centers, community resources and organizations or people who can help implement CIN projects.¹⁶

The CNTF's second task is to develop a 'working' community network vision statement - a brief, accessible and evolving statement that conveys the objectives and benefits of the effort - essentially a tool for marketing the initiative to the broader community. Included is a description of how the community will "look and feel" at some future time. Task Force members must share this vision in the community to set the stage for local organizations to 'buy in' and collaborate on the CIN project as the community moves toward a shared vision.

The third task is to draft a community network plan, designed to address development of IT training and community tech center(s), access to broadband, network/Website development and maintenance, and collaboration with agencies and organizations furthering their own mission(s) or self-interest through involvement with a sustainable CIN. The draft plan is the product of an all-day meeting of the CNTF with project personnel and key invited stakeholders. The network plan is essentially an evolving blueprint for how the community envisions integrating IT into local community-building and development processes.

The importance of broad community support and participation in creating and sustaining a CIN cannot be underestimated. CNTF members need to identify key community leaders who understand the importance and potential benefits of the CIN to their own organizations, and to the larger community. Some will serve as key liaisons and sounding boards between Task Force members and their own constituents. Part of the CNTF's mission is to find meaningful and appropriate ways to involve these individuals in project activities, since they are critical sources of volunteer labor and knowledge.

The initial CIN will likely be a product of IT camps (e.g., see www.pottercountypa.net). It is useful to encourage teachers from local schools to participate, enhancing computer/IT literacy and capacity within the school systems. Senior projects for high school classes can also be tailored around the IT Camps.

The plan for CTCs will emerge from the CNTF's network plan. Seed money needs to be provided if basic facilities do not already exist to establish CTCs and public access to broadband computing and network resources within the community; one possible revenue source is advertising funds from local businesses. The CTCs are critical to both access- and capacity-building activities. Broad-based support among community groups is essential to long-term sustainability of CINs, and to the community's sense of ownership of them. Their siting will consider traditional patterns of information access within the community, and build upon these and the institutions considered 'trustworthy' and 'user-friendly' (e.g., public library, schools).

The CTCs serve as training and technical support centers. Volunteer staffing is critical to their success. They increase the user base within the community, increase IT literacy, and increase the community's appeal to employers utilizing IT, and to telecommunications service providers seeking markets.

An e-business curriculum needs to be delivered to local businesses (including those that are home-based or on the surface appear not to be information-intensive), chambers of commerce, and others in surrounding communities, drawing on local volunteers to teach the curriculum. Small business owners participating in the e-commerce program learn how to use the Internet as a business marketing and research tool, decide if a Web presence is advantageous for their business, understand the components of Website creation, and learn techniques to effectively promote Websites and to incorporate Internet-based components into their business plans. One component of the CIN Website is a listing of local businesses, providing a community portal for linking Websites. Special attention can be paid to the needs of the farming communities (e.g., through auctions, input and output markets, access to a wide range of information providers, agencies, lenders, and services such as GIS).

A local 'e-government' curriculum is an essential element for building capacity within the public sector for online interaction between government officials and their constituents. This would include interaction involving community residents, as well as government-to-government interaction (e.g., municipalities communicating with state or federal agencies). An e-government software product that suits the needs of selected communities is currently being developed.¹⁸ Residents and local officials need to be involved in the choosing of appropriate software and the development of the curriculum, therefore it is difficult to anticipate what the curriculum will look like early in the planning process. Specific applications should be driven by perceived needs of residents. Sub-activities may include training for local government officials and staff and government agency directors and employees; the construction of a 'virtual town hall'; and the provision of GIS capacity (recognizing the critical importance of spatial issues in local government decision making).

A third curriculum needs to be provided to not-for-profit groups, including churches, civic clubs, youth groups and special interest groups. Not-for-profits are critical not only in building social capital within the communities, but for energizing their members to volunteer for local initiatives. Web sites and a community Web presence increase community members' knowledge and awareness of group activities and volunteer opportunities. In addition, not-for-profits can benefit from better connections to affiliated groups outside their community (e.g., for fund raising). Local chapters of national groups will be able to take advantage of resources difficult to obtain 'offline.' Training services need to be made available at the Community Tech Centers and equipment provided at little or no cost, but the organizations should provide volunteers to maintain and update their websites.

The delivery of curricula for IT applications represents the critical 'deployment' phase of the CIN. Intermediate outcomes such as use of network resources, IT graduates, growth of CNTF and related committees, are critical, but do not ensure that the knowledge and capacity gained are used to address local development problems and respond to opportunities (Table 1 lists some of the potential benefits of implementing these curricula).

Community networks are evolving entities, driven in this method by local participatory planning. However, communities are expected to achieve certain benchmarks, and these can be monitored or tracked by practitioners: (1.) The community will form a network task force and draft a plan for integrating IT. (2.) It will host IT Camps, plan for and establish technology centers, coordinate training in IT applications curricula, and (3.) develop elements of an online network (Table 2). In the process, (4.) the activities are expected to expand knowledge, use and value of IT in the community.

Of particular interest are communities' abilities to integrate IT in strategic ways by incorporating it into community building, networking and development processes, and more generally social life, and to use it not as a substitute for convention, but to do things never before possible or feasible. It is also anticipated that communities will use this capacity to form strategic alliances with organizations that have a vested interest in supporting the community or the CIN development process. Four principles drive the process and the evaluation: (building) capacity, (designing and promoting) access, (planning for) sustainability, and application (translating into action).

Time Table

A time table for a typical four-year CIN-building effort is presented in Table 2.

The proposed method is based on an ongoing project begun in 1999 in Potter County, Pennsylvania (www.pottercountypa.net/). The initiative was spearheaded and the methods developed by William Shuffstall <link> and consultant Elwood Kerkeslager <link>. Early outcomes include:

Building local capacity: A graduate of the initial IT training camp hosted by the county developed www.pottercountyedcouncil (PCEC)-a Web site designed to increase local awareness of higher education, workforce training, and continuing professional education opportunities in the county. The effort's stated goals are to better inform local citizenry and contribute to the vitality of local educational institutions. Now employed at Coudersport-based Adelphia Communications Business Solutions, the student creator continues to volunteer his time and expertise. Computer classes are now available in all five local school districts. Last year total enrollment was 467; this year it exceeded 300 in the first 6 months. In addition, the number of people accessing the Web site and seeking information from the council has doubled to over 1,000 in the last year. The county is also meeting its goal of expanding the cadre of volunteer Webmasters. Preliminary outcomes suggest that growth, interest and participation in network-related activities are increasing and diffusing to other communities.

Growth of IT Camp (activity two of the present proposal): The IT Camp, conducted in the summer, is in its third year. Camp officials (from the community and Penn State University [www.psu.edu]) identify 20 local sophomore and junior class high school students for the two-week intensive course, taught by PSU faculty and extension. Adelphia Communications has committed $10,000, up from $8,000 last year. The first year's product was www.pottercountypa.net, the community's Web page. The second year, community, network task force and camp staff decided to add the Potter County Historical Society Web page (www.pottercountypa.net/history/). This year's goal is to create Web pages for local human services agencies.

Planning activities: Oswayo Valley School District begins task force, IT and network planning in the Fall (objective and activity 1). Potter County Commissioners are reviewing virtual town hall sites to determine how best to bring county government online. The Coudersport Borough Manager and Council President would like to establish a presence on the site. The Human Services Director and Management Team have become involved in CIN and IT Camp planning, which will expedite the process of bringing the agencies online, and better familiarize students and IT volunteers with the structure and functioning of local social services.

Diffusion of CIN throughout county: The first community tech center (step 3 of this curriculum was opened in September 2000, at a Northern Potter school district building. The most frequent users have been students doing homework and research, parents with children doing Internet-based homework assignments, various individuals accessing e-mail accounts, and adults doing Web-based research (e.g., on health topics). In addition, a committee in the Northern Potter School District added three more communities to the county web site and continues to expand local history information. The community of Austin will be online by Summer 2001.

The empirical evidence available clearly shows that, while money is important for expanding IT use in communities, it is not enough. A great deal of money can be spent in support of IT development. However, if it is not accompanied by local broad-based efforts to build capacity to use it both at an individual and at a strategic community level, and to mobilize residents and local organizations, then returns on investment are likely to disappoint. The most critical elements in the process are the development of human capital and organizational capacity that provide communities with the means to use technology and the CIN to address local problems and better local conditions. The presence of an interested county extension agent provides impetus, but what may be more critical is the identification of committed community leaders who are willing and able to take advantage of the wealth of available Web-based resources on CINs, to work with and identify key governmental and technology partners, and to engage residents and build local support.

  ¹ Based on Shuffstall (2000a).

  ² See Teller County Government's Web page in Colorado at www.co.teller.co.us/.

  ³ See Hart and Teeter (2000) for an opinion poll of public attitudes toward e-government.

  ⁴ E.g., Michie and Lockwood (1999).

  ⁵ See http://pottercountyedcouncil.org/ for an example from one of the project communities.

  ⁶ E.g., see site co-developed by one of project participants at www.rosenet.org/gov/administration/bids/default.htm.

  ⁷ On World Wide Web at www.bev.net/mall/index.html. Also http://swain.ces.state.nc.us/smallbus/.

  ⁸ See Miller (1999).

  ⁹ See Cable Kakela (1995).

¹⁰ See Vinson (1999) for example of impact on organizations' access to and use of electronic information.

¹¹ Independent Sector (2001).

¹² E.g., see Agre 1999 (http://dlis.gseis.ucla.edu/people/pagre/alerts.html).

¹³ The Laboratory for Community and Economic Development (2001).

¹⁴ The Ars Portalis (www.arsportalis) project is experimenting with CINs providing Web space for hospital patients.

¹⁵ See for example www.Prarienet.org's link to community volunteering Website at http://cuvolunteer.org/

¹⁶ See 'CIN tools and resources' table; also Shuffstall (2000c).

¹⁷ E.g., see www.useit.com, or Universal Usability.org's Web site at http://www.universalusability.org/index.html.

¹⁸ Co-author Bill Shuffstall is working on this project in collaboration with a design team from the University of Minnesota.

Bill Shuffstall's factsheets: http://www.cas.nercrd.psu.edu/e-comm_cin_materials.htm

RoseNet example:

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